Recovering the Presbyterian Book of Common Worship

The phrase, “liturgical Presbyterianism,” may seem like a contradiction in terms but the American Presbyterian Church, and Reformed churches throughout history, have a long tradition of using approved liturgical forms for worship. A recovery of that tradition will help American Presbyterianism mirror back to other churches the theology and worship we have in common, while also providing a strong foundation for doxological discipleship, which will be a vital element of our witness in a post-Christian culture.

History of Presbyterian Service Books

Historically, Presbyterianism has had both a directory for worship and a service book, normally called a Book of Common Worship. However, though both pieces have a long history in Presbyterianism there is still often widespread confusion between the two and the role of each.

A Directory of Worship is typically a part of the constitution of the church and therefore has the authority of church law. It defines theological understanding, sets standards and definitions, gives instruction, and otherwise sets norms and parameters for worship. Though it does contain fixed forms to be used in worship (such as vows, decrees, and wording), it does not seek to form a whole service or provide for the ordering and implementation of a service of worship.

A service book, or Book of Common Worship, however, provides the full orders, services, and other texts for the common worship of the church. It is in harmony with the directory, but (1) is provided as a guide, (2) is not part of the constitution, and (3) is for voluntary use only. For example: the Directory would prescribe the baptism vows but would not provide a sample baptismal liturgy.

This tradition and practice reflect the Presbyterian way of worship. Some regulation is necessary because we are not free to worship God in any way we choose—hence a binding Directory of Worship. On the other hand, freedom of expression and the ordering of circumstances “according to the light of nature, and Christian prudence” has always been allowed as well—hence a non-binding Book of Common Worship. When both are used properly, the church has most often met that balance between “unprofitable laxity and oppressive uniformity.”

Service books, however, have fallen out of use within some branches of the Reformed community. Wherever this is true, it is important to note that this absence of the service book from Reformed worship represents the exception rather than the norm in historic Reformed worship.

For example, Reformed churches in the sixteenth century used service books. Ulrich Zwingli, Martin Bucer, and John Calvin all prepared forms of worship to be used in their congregations, and liturgical forms were in general use in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, Holland, England, and Scotland throughout the Reformation and were not considered as an imposition on the conscience of the individual worshipper.

The first service book used in Scotland was the English Book of Common Prayer 1552, and John Knox said he could “think well of it.” It was so widely used that it looked as though its use in Scotland would be permanent. Prayer books were used in various ways in Scotland after that as well—sometimes even in conjunction with the Church of England—but there were always distinctions, even then. For example, Presbyterians insisted on certain accommodations, like not kneeling before the communion elements and not lifting the communion elements above a certain height. These were referred to as the “black rubrics” in the prayer books.

After returning from Geneva where he was influenced by Calvin’s service book, John Knox prepared a service book, the Book of Common Order, or Knox’s Liturgy, for use in Scotland in 1556.

It was at this moment in history that Puritans and Scots began to settle in the New World and become the nucleus that shaped American Presbyterianism. Opposition to service books continued in the New World even though no service books were being imposed on the American Presbyterian Church and even though, eventually, American Presbyterians forgot why they had opposed service books in the first place. Hence, early American Presbyterian worship was governed only by a Directory of Worship.

American Presbyterians and the Liturgical Renaissance

In the middle of the nineteenth century a movement emerged among American Presbyterians and other Reformed churches that sought to restore a liturgical tradition that was both Reformed and catholic, and thus to rediscover the values associated with the use of a service book. Individuals began to write service books for use by Presbyterians. In 1855, Charles Baird produced his Eutaxia: The Presbyterian Liturgies, and in 1877, A. A. Hodge his A Manual of Forms.

Toward the end of the century, demand for such resources prompted the publishing house of the northern Presbyterian Church to produce collections of liturgical forms. But it was the southern General Assembly that first extended official sanction to liturgical forms. In 1894, a Directory for Worship was adopted for use in the southern Presbyterian Church that contained liturgical forms and liturgies for marriages and funerals appended to it. Nine years later the northern General Assembly responded positively to overtures calling for a book of services.

The result was that the first American Book of Common Worship was published in 1906. In approving and using this service book, American Presbyterianism made a decisive move back to the liturgical tradition of the Reformation and gave official recognition to the value of liturgical orders and texts in shaping worship.

The 1906 book was therefore a significant milepost in the reform of Presbyterian worship. It included orders with liturgical texts for both morning and evening Lord’s Day worship. It provided for celebrating Holy Communion, and texts were provided for some festivals and seasons of the liturgical calendar—although there was no lectionary. There were orders for Baptism and Confirmation of Baptismal Vows, a Treasury of Prayers (with family prayers), a selective Psalter, and a collection of ancient hymns and canticles. Congregational participation was encouraged with the provision of responses and unison prayers.

The approval of this service book was not without controversy. Henry van Dyke (also author of “Joyful, Joyful We Adore Thee”) was the chairman of the committee. Prior to the 1903 assembly, the book was attacked in the church press and twenty overtures asked that the book not be released or the project be killed entirely.

The floor debate, which stretched across two sessions over two days, was animated—applause and cheers, boos and hisses, and a copy of the book flung through the air. Van Dyke, the press reported, kept his composure through it all, and made his final appeal in terms of useful forms and personal freedoms. “I don’t want to see a fight....[T]his is not van Dyke’s prayer book. It belongs to every member of the committee you appointed yourselves… It’s not a liturgy. It is not a ritual. It does not contain ‘canned’ prayers. It contains great live prayers of our fathers. Are you going to tell the man who wants to use this book that he can’t have it?”

After two decades of use the book needed an update. In 1928 the General Assembly appointed a committee (again chaired by van Dyke) to revise the book and the revised edition appeared in 1932. Texts for additional festivals were added and a rudimentary lectionary was included. It is significant that the southern General Assembly approved it for use by its congregations, as well.

Nine years later the northern General Assembly established a permanent committee on the revision of the Book of Common Worship to monitor the liturgical needs of the church and periodically to propose revisions. A thoroughgoing revision of the book resulted in a new edition in 1946—the high-water mark for the Book of Common Worship in American Presbyterianism. This edition provided for still greater congregational participation, contained expanded resources for Lord’s Day morning and evening services and the celebration of Holy Communion. A complete two-year lectionary from the Church of Scotland’s Book of Common Order (1940) was also included. Though further revisions were made to the service book in 1970 and in 1993, the 1946 Book of Common Worship has remained the book of choice for those in the Presbyterian Church in America who desire to make use of the benefits of a service book in their own private and corporate worship. It was approved by the PCUS for use in the Southern Church, is still used by many in the south, and is sold by the PCA Bookstore even though the PCA has no Book of Common Worship approved for use.

A few features of the 1946 bear special highlight.

First, the liturgy for Holy Communion is remarkably similar to that in the 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the ECP and the more recent Book of Common Prayer of the ACNA.

Second, baptism questions included a vow regarding the content of your profession: Do you believe in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, etc. This use of the Apostles’ Creed, in the form of baptismal question, reflects the practice of early church. (Interestingly, in the PCA, we do not require a doctrinal confession, a Trinitarian profession, or anything more than a belief in Christ for salvation.)

Third, it included a liturgy for setting apart a commissioned church worker—set apart by Presbytery—i.e., those doing full time church work but are not ordained (youth workers, music directors, etc.).

The Book of Common Worship was further updated in 1970 and in 1993, but the 1970 never gained wide use, and the 1993 is fraught with theological errors and weaknesses.

Unique and Lesser-Known Features of the Book of Common Worship

The Book of Common Worship reflects a unique tradition in the field of service books. These unique features include but are not limited to:

• Voluntary Use—From the very beginning, the Book of Common Worship was provided as a resource to aid worship, but was never mandated. In both the 1906 and the 1932 editions, “For Voluntary Use” is printed prominently on the title page. This is an important qualifier for use and reflects the Presbyterian preference for emphasis on the rubrics rather than the specific content.
• Options, options, options— The use of the term “may” is important in the rubrics. These are not directives; they are suggestions. It is also reflected in the provision of many different options for the services, prayers, and liturgical discretion. For example, the 1946 gives five different liturgy options for morning worship.
• Treasury of Prayers—From the beginning, the book of Common Worship included a collection of prayers called the Treasury. While this feature is found on other service books, the Book of Common Worship is notable for the number and variety of prayers provided for various uses including prayers related to the liturgical year, special graces, and special circumstances (children, travelers, military, children, prayers before meals, etc.)
• Liturgies for Special Occasions—Including the dedication of buildings and memorials and commissioning of church workers and missionaries.

Presbyterianism and the Great Tradition

The liturgical renewals and reforms of the mid twentieth century led to many reforms back to the Great Tradition of church. Discoveries such as Hippolytus’ The Apostolic Tradition revealed more insight into the liturgical practices of the early church, and these practices were reflected in the reforms of the time period.

The result is that the liturgies of the 1946 Book of Common Worship are very closely aligned to other traditions seeking to root their worship in the Great Tradition of the church.

There is a liturgical Presbyterian tradition that is thoughtful, Reformed and catholic, beautiful, and rich. The greatest contribution of the Presbyterian tradition in worship, in my mind, is its ability to hold extremes in tension: Form and aesthetic with content and theology.

It is time that this tradition be reclaimed by its rightful heirs. At one time, every graduating student from seminary was provided with a complimentary copy of the Book of Common Worship because it was seen as “essential equipment” for ministry. God grant us the humility and the courage to see it so again.